Essentials of Food Science

Essentials of Food Science by Vaclavic and Christian

Summary

Part I - Food Components

Chapter 1: Evaluation of Food Quality

Introduces the concept of food quality and its importance to consumers and manufacturers. Explores the subjective aspects of quality, such as appearance (size, shape, color, structure), texture (as perceived by touch and mouthfeel), and flavor (a combination of taste and smell). The chapter also discusses taste sensitivity, factors affecting it (like temperature and psychological aspects), and the scientific method of sensory evaluation, including different types of tests (discrimination, descriptive, affective) and procedures to minimize bias. Finally, it covers objective evaluation methods, including food rheology (the science of deformation and flow of matter), and compares the uses and importance of both subjective and objective evaluations in quality control and product development.

Chapter 2: Water

This chapter highlights the fundamental role of water in food. It emphasizes water's impact on texture, food processing techniques (like freezing and drying), and shelf life due to its necessity for bacterial growth. It examines the chemistry of water, including its molecular structure, hydrogen bonding, and unique properties like specific heat, latent heat, vapor pressure, and boiling point, explaining how these affect food processing and preservation. The chapter further explores water's function as a dispersing medium (forming solutions, colloidal dispersions, and suspensions), the concepts of free, bound, and entrapped water, and water activity (Aw​) in relation to food preservation. It concludes by briefly discussing water hardness, treatments, and beverage consumption rankings.

Physical Properties of Water

What specific impacts do water's various physical properties have on food processing and preservation?

Hydrogen bonding and physical density:

• Water's ability to form up to four hydrogen bonds per molecule results in a three-dimensional lattice in ice. Liquid water also contains a high degree of hydrogen bonding.
• A crucial consequence of water's structure and hydrogen bonding is that ice is less dense than liquid water, causing it to float. As water freezes, its volume increases by about 9%.
• This expansion during freezing is highly significant in food processing. Containers and equipment for freezing foods must be designed to accommodate this volume increase (e.g., molds for popsicles). This expansion also contributes to structural damage in foods with high water content, such as soft fruits, when they are frozen.

Specific heat:

• The specific heat of water is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1∘C. Water has a relatively high specific heat (1cal/g/∘C) compared to other substances, largely due to its hydrogen bonds.
• his high specific heat means it takes considerable energy to heat water. When water is used as a heating medium, this stored energy is then available to be transferred to the food. Consequently, foods heated in water are slow to heat. This property is a key consideration in processes like blanching, pasteurization, and canning where water is used for heat transfer.

Latent heat:

• Latent Heat of Fusion: This is the energy required to convert 1 gram of ice to water at 0∘C (80 calories) without a change in temperature.
• Latent Heat of Vaporization: This is the energy required to convert 1 gram of water to steam at 100∘C (540 calories) without a change in temperature.
• Both latent heats for water are fairly high. The high latent heat of fusion is important in freezing processes, as significant energy must be removed to freeze the water in foods. The high latent heat of vaporization is critical in processes like evaporation, concentration, and dehydration (drying), as considerable energy must be supplied to remove water as vapor. It also makes water an effective cooling agent, as evaporation removes heat from the surroundings.

Sublimation:

• This is the phenomenon where ice is converted directly into vapor without passing through the liquid phase, typically under vacuum and with applied heat.
• Sublimation is the basis for freeze-drying, a food preservation method used for products like coffee. While expensive, it results in high-quality dried products. Freezer burn, the undesirable dehydration on the surface of frozen foods, is also a result of sublimation.

Vapor pressure:

• Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by vapor molecules that have escaped from the liquid state onto the surface of the liquid. It increases with temperature. The addition of solutes like salt or sugar lowers the vapor pressure of water.
• A high vapor pressure means a liquid evaporates easily. Understanding vapor pressure is important in drying and concentration processes. The lowering of vapor pressure by solutes is a principle used in some preservation methods, as it can affect water activity.

Boiling point:

• A liquid boils when its vapor pressure reaches the external (atmospheric) pressure. Anything that lowers the vapor pressure, such as the addition of solutes (salts, sugars), increases the boiling point. Conversely, decreased external pressure (e.g., at high altitudes) lowers the boiling point. Increased external pressure (e.g., in a pressure cooker or retort) raises the boiling point.
• he elevation of boiling point by solutes is important in candy making and jelly making, where temperature is used to determine sugar concentration. Pressure cooking and retorting (canning) utilize increased pressure to achieve higher temperatures, which cook food faster and ensure sterility. At high altitudes, longer cooking times may be required due to the lower boiling point of water.

Maxwell's Demon Thought Experiment

In the above list, we've mentioned some physical properties that are important in various food processes.

Ultimately, water's physical properties are what they are - if you want to change any physical property above, you have to add something that's NOT water, like salt or alcohol, and create a multicomponent mixture.

But suppose for a moment that we had a knob we could turn for a particular set of water molecules that would adjust a physical property ever so slightly. In more familiar terms, suppose we had a jug of water filled with water molecules that all had one of Maxwell's Demons onboard. We could modify boiling point in the thought experiment by saying it is the job of that Demon to make sure whenever water is about to boil at 100 degrees Celsius, it rises in temperate just a little bit more and doesn't boil until 101 degrees Celsius. We could modify heat capacity by saying, whenever water has absorbed a unit of energy (it's maximum unit capacity), the Demon finds a way to absorb just a little bit more. Would these violate conservation of mass, momentum, and energy? Yes. But they're just thought experiments.

What effect would that have on the food preparation process?

The effect could be determined by modify the physical property by 1%, 2.5%, 5%, 10%, and seeing the effect on the process. This would require either detailed physical simulation models that would be utilizing physical properties from some kind of "hypothetical substance" (Maxwell's Demon Water - hey, that sounds like an energy drink!), or some ensemble statistical model that represents the various physical processes happening in the different parts of the system, as a function of physical properties.

Process:

1. Select a relevant physical property of water from Chapter 2 of "Essentials of Food Science."
2. Qualitatively discuss the likely impacts of altering this property on the key physical and chemical processes involved in baking a cake, based on established food science principles.
3. Hypothesize the potential outcomes

Maxwell's Demon Experiment for Latent Heat of Vaporization

Latent Heat of Vaporization:

• approximately 450 calories/gram for water
• This affects how much energy it takes water to turn into steam, which will affect the volume/amount of steam - which would have very large impacts on baking!
• Specific processes it affects:
  • Steam Production for Leavening: The conversion of water to steam is a major leavening force in many baked goods, including cakes.
  • Drying and Crust Formation: The evaporation of water from the cake's surface is essential for crust development and achieving desired internal moisture.
  • Heat Transfer: Evaporation at the surface leads to evaporative cooling. Internal steam can help distribute heat.
  • Setting of Structure: The removal of water helps to solidify the structure formed by gelatinized starches and coagulated proteins.

A mathematical model for cake baking should account for these various processes:

• Heat transfer:
  • Conduction into/through batter
  • Convection currents in oven
  • Radiation from oven walls
  • Energy consumed/released by phase changes (water->steam)
  • Spherical cow approach: treat the cake as mostly... water-like?

• Mass transfer:
  • Evaporation of water from the cake surface (rate influenced by Lv​, temperature, humidity, air flow)
  • Internal moisture migration
  • Gas (CO2, air, steam) bubble nucleation, growth, and coalescence

• Key transformations (kinetics often temperature and water activity dependent):
  • Starch Gelatinization: Requires water and heat (affects viscosity and crumb structure)
  • Protein Denaturation and Coagulation (eggs, flour): Sets the permanent structure
  • Chemical Leavening (baking powder/soda): CO2 production rate is temperature-dependent
  • Maillard Reactions & Caramelization: Browning and flavor development, highly temperature-dependent and influenced by surface moisture

• Structural development
  • Volume expansion
  • Crumb formation
  • Crust development

So much for Von Neumann's quote about fitting an elephant with 5 parameters... I don't think he ever said he could bake a cake with 5 parameters.

How would we assemble a crude statistical model?

• Energy balance
  • This is the key equation to determine the impact of changing Lv latent heat of vaporization
  • Energy for evaporation = Lv * mass of water evaporated
  • This affects the overall temperature rise of the cake, but especially at the surface, where there is a "free space" for the water molecules to vaporize and escape, once they have reached boiling temperature
• Modified evaporation rate and drying effect
  • Likely an empirical model for drying, which would link evaporation rate to vapor pressure differences, temperature, and material properties
  • The latent heat of vaporization would intrinsically be part of that kind of model, so could try adjusting the drying model
  • That might mean, fiddling with a coefficient, or maybe doing some sub-experiments on a separate drying model with "Demon Water"
  • THE MOST DIFFICULT STEP: Correlating latent heat of vaporization Lv to transformation rates.
    • How does a change in surface cooling due to altered evaporation rate affect temperature gradient in the cake? (and thus, rate of starch gelatinization or protein setting at different depths)
    • If steam production for leavening happens more because Lv is lower, or happens less because Lv is higher, how does that affect bubble expansion models?

Thought experiment version:

• Let's skip building the actual model and just think about turning the knob all the way to the left or right.
• Consider what would happen if latent heat of vaporization were DECREASED 10%, and if it were INCREASED 10%

Latent Heat of Vaporization DECREASES 10%:

• Less energy required to convert water to steam
• Faster evaporation, since water more readily turns to steam, which would lead to faster drying at the surface
• More vigorous steam leavening (for a given recipe/water amount), since more water can be converted to steam per unit energy (oven temp) and unit time (baking time)
• Faster crust formation, since the surface will dry out sooner, and that is the beginning of the process of crust formation
• Altered internal temperature profile, since more energy would be used for evaporation at a lower batter temperature. That could slow the rise of the internal core temperature. This would compound the effect of the surface getting hotter due to faster evaporation and faster drying
• One additional compounding effect of the cake drying quicker is, with a lower Lv, water can escape more easily, which lowers the amount of energy it takes with it when it leaves, which lowers the amount of cooling you get from evaporative cooling. So, the surface temperature of the cake would be increasing higher due to being dryer, but would also be higher due to less cooling effects when the steam leaves as part of the drying process.

Taste test:

• Dryer cake - the moisture loss would be greater for a given baking time.
• Thicker, harder crust - due to faster and more extensive surface drying.
• Partially burned crust - surface temperature increased too rapidly, both due to the faster drying and the decreased evaporative cooling.
• Texture problems - near the exterior of the cake, the crumb is more open, because the steam leavening was initially very strong, the surface was hotter, and the batter dryer near the crust. But the heat transfer through the batter was not as good, leaving the interior cooler, slowing down the various processes closer to the center of the cake, and creating overcooked, dry "outer" layers and undercooked, pasty "inner" layers. (However, with the extended cooking time, the inner layer starch didn't fully gelatinize, so it wasn't WET, but it was pasty)
• Volcano top - the rapid steam expansion at the surface caused the protein/starch network to set too early on the outside, while the inside still had expanding to do, creating a structural fistfight between the outer core and the inner core and a split lip for the top of the cake
• Dark or acrid crust - the browning and caramelization reactions at the surface, which with a normal recipe would create the perfect crunchy texture around the crust of the cake, happened faster and longer than they should have with the overheated surface.

Part II - Carbohydrates in Food

Chapter 3: Carbohydrates in Food: An Introduction

This chapter introduces carbohydrates as organic compounds vital for energy and as functional ingredients in foods, acting as sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers. It details the classification of carbohydrates, starting with monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, explaining their chemical structures (aldose, ketose, D- and L-series, ring structures). The chapter then moves to disaccharides, focusing on the formation of glycosidic bonds and providing examples like sucrose, maltose, and cellobiose, highlighting their properties such as sweetness, solution formation, contribution to body and mouthfeel, role in fermentation, preservation, and participation in caramelization and Maillard reactions. Finally, it briefly defines oligosaccharides and introduces polysaccharides like dextrins, dextrans, starch, and pectins, setting the stage for more detailed discussions in subsequent chapters.

Classifying Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They play crucial roles as energy sources, fiber, and functional ingredients in foods (sweeteners, thickeners, stabilizers, gelling agents, fat replacers).

The classification of carbohydrates is based on degree of polymerization, and further sub-classified by structural features (number of carbons, types of functional groups).

I. Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)

• These are the simplest carbohydrates, typically containing three to eight carbon atoms, with five-carbon (pentoses) and six-carbon (hexoses) sugars being the most common in foods. Their general formula is $C_{n}H_{2n}O_{n}$

• Classification by functional group:
  • Aldoses: Monosaccharides containing an aldehyde group (-CHO). Glucose is a key example, referred to as an aldohexose (an aldehyde with six carbons). Other food-relevant aldoses include galactose and mannose.
  • Ketoses: Monosaccharides containing a ketone group (C=O). Fructose is the most important ketose in food, classified as a ketohexose (a ketone with six carbons).

• Classification by isomeric form and structure:
  • D- and L-Series: Based on the configuration around the asymmetric carbon atom furthest from the carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone), relative to glyceraldehyde. Most naturally occurring monosaccharides are in the D-series (e.g., D-glucose, D-fructose).
  • Ring Structures: In solution, monosaccharides (especially pentoses and hexoses) exist predominantly in cyclic or ring forms rather than straight chains. These rings are formed by a reaction between the carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group on the same molecule.
    • Pyranose rings: Six-membered rings (e.g., glucopyranose).
    • Furanose rings: Five-membered rings (e.g., fructofuranose). Glucose predominantly forms pyranose rings, while fructose mainly forms furanose rings.
  • Anomers (α and β): The formation of the ring structure creates a new asymmetric carbon atom (the anomeric carbon, which was originally the carbonyl carbon). This results in two possible isomeric forms called anomers:
    • α-anomer: In D-series sugars, the anomeric hydroxyl group typically points down (opposite to carbon-6) in Haworth projections.
    • β-anomer: In D-series sugars, the anomeric hydroxyl group typically points up (same side as carbon-6) in Haworth projections. The configuration (α or β) is fixed when the monosaccharide forms a glycosidic bond and significantly affects the properties of larger carbohydrates (e.g., starch vs. cellulose).
• Key examples:
  • Glucose: The most important aldose sugar, a primary energy source.
  • Fructose: A very sweet ketose sugar, found in fruits and honey.
  • Galactose: An aldose sugar, a component of lactose (milk sugar).

II. Disaccharides

• Composed of two monosaccharide units linked together by a glycosidic bond. This bond forms between the anomeric carbon of one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group of another, with the elimination of a water molecule.
• The configuration of the anomeric carbon involved in the glycosidic bond becomes fixed as either α or β. The bond position is indicated by the numbers of the connected carbons (e.g., α-1,4 glycosidic bond).
• Glycosidic bonds can be hydrolyzed by acid and heat, or by specific enzymes (e.g., sucrase, lactase, amylases).

• Key examples:
  • Sucrose (Table Sugar): Composed of glucose + fructose, linked by an α-1,2 glycosidic bond. It's a non-reducing sugar because the anomeric carbons of both monosaccharides are involved in the bond.
  • Lactose (Milk Sugar): Composed of galactose + glucose, linked by a β-1,4 glycosidic bond. It's a reducing sugar.
  • Maltose (Malt Sugar): Composed of two glucose units, linked by an α-1,4 glycosidic bond. It's a reducing sugar and a breakdown product of starch.
  • Cellobiose: Composed of two glucose units, linked by a β-1,4 glycosidic bond. It's the repeating unit of cellulose and is indigestible by humans.

III. Oligosaccharides

• Contain a few (typically 3 to 10) monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds.
• These are often found in legumes (beans and peas) and are not typically digested by human enzymes, leading to fermentation by gut bacteria and potential gas production.
• Key examples:
  • Raffinose: A trisaccharide (galactose-glucose-fructose).
  • Stachyose: A tetrasaccharide (galactose-galactose-glucose-fructose).

IV. Polysaccharides

• Complex carbohydrates composed of many (hundreds or thousands) monosaccharide units linked together. Their properties depend on the type of monosaccharide units, the types of glycosidic linkages, and the degree of branching.
• Key examples:
  • Dextrins and Dextrans: Dextrins are intermediate-chain glucose polymers from starch hydrolysis (mainly α-1,4 links). Dextrans are glucose polymers with mainly α-1,6 links, produced by some microorganisms.
  • Starch: A major storage polysaccharide in plants, composed of glucose units. It consists of two types of molecules:
    • Amylose: A linear chain of glucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds.
    • Amylopectin: A highly branched structure of glucose units with α-1,4 linkages in the main chains and α-1,6 linkages at branch points.
  • Pectins and Other Polysaccharides (briefly introduced): Complex polysaccharides like pectins (polymers of galacturonic acid, a derivative of galactose), gums, and cellulose (a structural polysaccharide in plants made of glucose units linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds, indigestible by humans – dietary fiber).

Properties of Sugars

Below are some of the important properties of sugar:

• Sweetness

• Body/Mouthfeel

• Formation of Solutions and Syrups: Sugars are soluble in water and readily form syrups. Their solubility generally increases with temperature. This property is fundamental to creating many food products, from simple sugar solutions to complex confections. The ability to form saturated and supersaturated solutions is particularly important in candy making.

• Fermentation: Sugars can be metabolized by microorganisms like yeast. This property is crucial in processes such as breadmaking, where yeast ferments sugar to produce carbon dioxide, which acts as a leavening agent.

• Preservatives: At high concentrations, sugars can act as preservatives by reducing the water activity of food. This makes less water available for microbial growth, thus extending the shelf life of products like jams and jellies.

• Reducing Sugars: Sugars that contain a free carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone) are known as reducing sugars. All monosaccharides (like glucose and fructose) and some disaccharides (like maltose and lactose) are reducing sugars. This property is significant because reducing sugars can participate in the Maillard reaction with amino acids, contributing to browning and flavor development in baked goods and other cooked foods. Sucrose is a notable non-reducing sugar.

• Caramelization: When heated to high temperatures (above their melting point), sugars decompose and turn brown, a process called caramelization. This non-enzymatic browning reaction produces a characteristic brown color and caramel flavor, important in many confections and desserts. This reaction does not involve proteins, distinguishing it from the Maillard reaction.

• Hygroscopicity (related to Invert Sugar and Fructose): This is the ability of a substance to attract and hold water molecules from the surrounding environment. While sucrose is hygroscopic, sugars high in fructose (like invert sugar, honey, and molasses) are even more so. This property is important for moisture retention in baked goods but can also lead to "runny" characteristics in candies if not controlled.

• Formation of Invert Sugar (Property of Sucrose): Sucrose can be hydrolyzed (broken down by acid or enzymes like invertase) into an equimolar mixture of glucose and fructose, known as invert sugar. Invert sugar is more soluble and often sweeter than sucrose. Its formation is important in candy making to control or prevent unwanted crystallization of sucrose and to keep crystals small, contributing to a smoother texture.

• Sugar Alcohols (Derivatives): Not a property of the original sugars themselves, but the ability of sugars (specifically their carbonyl group) to be reduced to form sugar alcohols (polyols) like xylitol, sorbitol, and mannitol is a significant characteristic. These sugar alcohols are sweet but are not fermented as readily by mouth bacteria, making them noncariogenic (not causing tooth decay). They also typically have fewer calories than sugars and are used in "sugar-free" products, though they are not calorie-free.

Ontological Framework for Sugars

• Carbohydrate
  • Simple Carbohydrate (Sugar)
    • Characterized by: Generally sweet taste, water-soluble, crystalline structure (when solid).
    • Class: Monosaccharide
      • Definition: Single sugar unit, cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler sugars.
      • Properties/Attributes:
        • A. Based on Number of Carbon Atoms:
          • Subclass: Triose (3C)
          • Subclass: Tetrose (4C)
          • Subclass: Pentose (5C)
            • (e.g., ribose, arabinose - though not heavily detailed for food examples in Chapter 3)
          • Subclass: Hexose (6C)
            • Instances: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Mannose
        • B. Based on Functional Group (Primarily for Hexoses/Pentoses):
          • Subclass: Aldose (contains aldehyde group)
            • Example Instance (from Hexose): Glucose (is a Aldohexose), Galactose (is a Aldohexose)
          • Subclass: Ketose (contains ketone group)
            • Example Instance (from Hexose): Fructose (is a Ketohexose)
        • C. Based on Ring Structure (Predominant form):
          • Attribute: Ring Type (Pyranose - 6-membered, Furanose - 5-membered)
          • Attribute: Anomeric Form ($\alpha$, $\beta$)
        • D. Based on Isomeric Series:
          • Attribute: Optical Isomer (D-series, L-series - most food sugars are D)
        • E. Chemical Reactivity:
          • Attribute: Reducing Sugar (All monosaccharides are reducing sugars)
        • F. Physical Properties:
          • Attribute: Relative Sweetness
          • Attribute: Solubility
        • G. Derivatives:
          • Can form: Sugar Alcohols (Polyols)
            • Examples: Sorbitol (from Glucose), Mannitol (from Mannose)
    • Class: Disaccharide
      • Definition: Two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond.
      • Properties/Attributes:
        • A. Based on Constituent Monosaccharides:
          • Attribute: Monomer 1
          • Attribute: Monomer 2
        • B. Based on Glycosidic Linkage:
          • Attribute: Anomeric Configuration of Bond ($\alpha$ or $\beta$)
          • Attribute: Carbon Atoms Involved (e.g., 1,4 or 1,2)
        • C. Chemical Reactivity:
          • Attribute: Reducing Sugar (Yes/No - depends if a free anomeric carbon remains)
            • Subclass: Reducing Disaccharide
              • Instances: Maltose, Lactose
            • Subclass: Non-reducing Disaccharide
              • Instances: Sucrose
        • D. Physical Properties:
          • Attribute: Relative Sweetness
          • Attribute: Solubility
        • E. Hydrolysis Products:
          • Can be hydrolyzed to: Constituent Monosaccharides
            • Example: Sucrose hydrolyzes to Glucose and Fructose (forming Invert Sugar)
      • Instances: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose, Cellobiose
  • Complex Carbohydrate
    • Class: Oligosaccharide (Contains 3-10 monosaccharide units )
      • Properties: Number of units, constituent monosaccharides, linkage types, digestibility.
      • Instances: Raffinose (galactose-glucose-fructose), Stachyose (glucose-fructose-two galactose units)

Chapter 4: Starches in Food

This chapter focuses on starch as a plant polysaccharide, a key energy source for humans, and a versatile food ingredient used for thickening. It discusses various starch sources, the structure and composition of starch granules (amylose and amylopectin), and their differing gelling and thickening properties. A significant portion is dedicated to the gelatinization process when starch is cooked in water, outlining the steps from water imbibition and granule swelling to the loss of birefringence and increased translucency, and factors that require control during this process such as agitation, acid, enzymes, fat, proteins, sugar, salt, temperature, and heating time. The chapter also explains gelation (the setting of gelatinized starch pastes upon cooling), retrogradation (starch reverting to a more crystalline structure, causing staling), and syneresis (water weeping from gels), the role of separating agents to prevent lumps, and the characteristics and uses of modified starches, including waxy starches.

Chapter 5: Pectins and Gums

This chapter explores pectins and gums, important polysaccharides used in foods as gelling agents, thickeners, and stabilizers. It details the nature of pectic substances (protopectin, pectinic acid, pectic acid) found in plant tissues, focusing on pectins (high-molecular weight pectinic acids) and their classification into high-methoxyl and low-methoxyl types based on their degree of esterification, which affects their gelling properties. The chapter explains pectin gel formation, the roles of sugar and acid, and sources of commercial pectin, along with principles of jelly making. It then discusses various types of gums, including seed gums (guar, locust bean), plant exudates (gum arabic, tragacanth), microbial exudates (xanthan, gellan), seaweed polysaccharides (carrageenan, agar, alginates), and synthetic gums (derived from cellulose), outlining their characteristics and diverse functional roles in food products.

Chapter 6: Grains

This chapter provides an overview of grains (cereals) as cultivated grasses producing edible seeds, emphasizing their nutritional importance and diverse culinary uses in products like bread, breakfast cereals, pasta, and oils. It describes the structure of cereal grains (germ, endosperm, bran) and their general composition, noting variations in carbohydrates (starch and fiber), fats, proteins (including gluten-forming potential and limiting amino acids), water, vitamins (especially B vitamins), and minerals, along with the concepts of enrichment and fortification. The chapter then details common cereal grains and their uses, focusing extensively on wheat (types, milling process, flour treatments like bleaching and maturing, and wheat foods like bulgur and couscous), rice (types, enrichment, amylose content), and corn (uses for cornmeal, hominy, cornstarch, corn syrup), and briefly covers other grains like barley (including malt production), millet, oats, quinoa, rye, and triticale, as well as non-cereal "flours". Principles of cooking cereals, breakfast cereals, and pasta are also discussed, concluding with a look at the nutritive value and safety of grains.

Chapter 7: Vegetables and Fruits

This chapter defines vegetables as edible plant portions often eaten with main courses and fruits as mature plant ovaries typically consumed alone or as dessert, highlighting their structural and compositional similarities and differences, particularly in organic acid and sugar content. It details the structure of plant cell tissue (dermal, parenchyma, vascular, supporting tissues, cell wall, protoplast, vacuole) and the chemical composition of plant material, including carbohydrates (starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic substances, lignin), proteins, fats, vitamins (carotene, vitamin C, B vitamins), minerals, water, and phytochemicals, also explaining turgor pressure. The chapter extensively covers plant pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanins, anthoxanthins, betalains, tannins) and the effects of substances like acid and alkali on their color and texture during cooking, as well as flavor compounds (allium, brassica, organic acids) and the use of concentrates, extracts, oils, spices, and herbs. It further discusses vegetable classifications, harvesting, postharvest changes including ripening (climacteric vs. non-climacteric, ethylene gas role) and enzymatic oxidative browning, the effects of cooking on various attributes (water retention, color, texture, flavor, nutritive value), unique preparation principles for fruits and fruit juices, grading, organic farming, biotechnology, and irradiation. The chapter concludes with information on vegetarian food choices, labeling (Nutrition Facts, label terms), nutrient losses, and the safety of vegetables and fruits.

Part III - Proteins in Food

Chapter 8: Proteins in Food: An Introduction

This chapter introduces proteins as abundant and essential molecules in cells, crucial for structure (muscle, connective tissue), transport (blood system), and catalysis (enzymes). It explains that proteins are made of amino acids, each with a unique structure and function, and are sensitive to changes like pH and heat. The chapter details the general structure of amino acids (central carbon, carboxyl group, amino group, hydrogen atom, and R group) and categorizes them based on their side chains (hydrophobic/nonpolar, polar uncharged, positively charged/basic, negatively charged/acidic), outlining their ability to form hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, and ionic bonds (salt bridges). It then describes protein structure at four levels: primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (alpha-helix, beta-pleated sheet, random coil), tertiary (fibrous and globular), and quaternary (association of protein chains), and the interactions (peptide bonds, hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, hydrophobic interactions, ionic interactions, steric effects) that stabilize these structures. The chapter also covers key reactions and properties of proteins including their amphoteric nature, isoelectric point, water-binding capacity, salting-in and salting-out phenomena, denaturation (causes and effects), hydrolysis, Maillard browning, the role of enzymes, functional roles in foods (solubility, thickening, binding, gelling, emulsifying, foaming), conjugated proteins, and a discussion on protein quality assessment methods like PDCAAS and the newer DIAAS.

Chapter 9: Meat, Poultry, Fish, and Dry Beans

This chapter covers meat (red meat from mammals like beef, veal, lamb, mutton, pork, and white meat from poultry), fish, and dry beans as significant protein sources. It details the physical composition of meat (muscle tissue including myofibrils, connective tissue like collagen and elastin, and adipose/fatty tissue including marbling) and its chemical composition (water, protein types, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals). The chapter explains muscle contraction in live animals (structure of myofilaments, process of contraction, energy sources) and the postmortem changes in muscle, including rigor mortis, the role of ATP and lactic acid, ultimate pH, and the aging or conditioning process to improve tenderness. It also discusses meat pigments (myoglobin, hemoglobin) and color changes, the meat handling process including USDA inspections, Kosher and Halal certifications, grading (quality and yield), and concerns about hormones and antibiotics. Different cuts of meat (primal, subprimal, retail) and appropriate cooking methods (dry heat, moist heat) are described, along with the effects of cooking on muscle proteins, collagen, and fat, and other factors like searing and removal temperature. The chapter also addresses alterations to meat like processing (curing, smoking, restructuring, tenderizing), poultry (chicken, turkey classifications), fish (finfish, shellfish, surimi), and dry beans/legumes (including soy products like tofu and TVP) as meat alternatives, along with Quorn. Finally, it covers the nutritive value and safety of these food groups.

Chapter 10: Eggs and Egg Products

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of hen eggs, discussing their physical structure (whole egg, yolk, white/albumen, shell, chalazae, vitelline membrane, air cell) and chemical composition (water, protein types like ovalbumin and avidin, fats, cholesterol, vitamins, minerals, pigments). It examines changes due to aging, abnormalities in egg structure, and the numerous functions of eggs in food systems, such as binding, clarifying, emulsifying, foaming, gelling, and thickening. The chapter details inspections and grading for egg quality (candling, letter grades, air cell size) and different egg sizes. Processing and preservation methods for eggs, including the use of mineral oil, pasteurization (including ultrapasteurization), freezing, and dehydration, are discussed along with proper storage techniques. A significant portion is dedicated to the principles of denaturation and coagulation of egg proteins by heat, mechanical action, or pH, and the effect of added ingredients (sugar, salt, acid) on these processes, with specific cooking/baking applications like pan-frying, hard-cooked eggs, custards (stirred and baked), and scrambled eggs. Egg white foams and meringues (soft and hard) are thoroughly covered, including factors affecting their volume and stability (temperature, pH, salt, sugar, fat, liquid, starch) and common problems like weeping and beading. The chapter also looks at egg products and egg substitutes, their nutritive value (highlighting protein quality scores like PDCAAS and the proposed DIAAS), and safety considerations, including Salmonella enteritidis, safe handling instructions, and specific advice for Easter eggs and the natural resistance of egg whites to bacterial growth.

Chapter 11: Milk and Milk Products

This chapter covers milk, primarily cow's milk, defining it and detailing its composition: water, carbohydrates (lactose), fat (butterfat, phospholipids, cholesterol), proteins (casein fractions forming micelles, whey proteins like lactalbumins and lactoglobulins, enzymes), vitamins (water-soluble B vitamins like riboflavin, fat-soluble A, D, E, K), and minerals (calcium, phosphorus). It explains the classification of milk as a solution, colloidal dispersion, and emulsion, and discusses grading based on bacterial counts and the factors affecting milk flavor. Milk processing techniques are thoroughly examined, including pasteurization (LTLT, HTST, HHST, UHT/ultrapasteurization, aseptic processing, and the phosphatase test), homogenization (to prevent creaming), fortification (vitamins A and D), and bleaching. Different types of milk are described: fluid milk (whole, reduced-fat, low-fat, nonfat, flavored), evaporated and concentrated milks (including sweetened condensed milk and forewarming), dried milk (spray drying, instant nonfat dry milk), and cultured/fermented milk products like buttermilk, sour cream, yogurt (including probiotic aspects and the "live and active cultures" seal), acidophilus milk, and kefir (including prebiotics and synbiotics). The chapter also covers other milk products such as butter (churning, sweet cream butter, margarine comparison), cream (light, whipping, heavy, half-and-half), ice cream (composition, overrun, sherbet), and whey (composition, uses of WPCs and WPIs). Cooking applications of milk are discussed, focusing on coagulation by heat, acid, enzymes (rennin), polyphenolic compounds, and salts, and how to control curdling. A significant section is dedicated to cheese: definition, classification (moisture content: very hard, hard, semisoft, soft; ripening process), production (role of rennin/chymosin, starter cultures, curd development), examples of cheese types, pasteurized process cheese products (cheese food, cheese spread, cold-pack), and milk substitutes/imitation milk products (filled milk). The chapter concludes with the nutritive value of milk and milk products (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, addressing lactose intolerance) and safety/quality considerations, including proper storage and marketing efforts like the "got milk?" campaign.

Part IV - Fats in Food

Chapter 12: Fat and Oil Products

This chapter introduces fats and oils as principal dietary components valued for flavor, texture, and aroma, and as carriers of fat-soluble vitamins; it distinguishes between fats (solid at room temperature) and oils (liquid at room temperature) and notes their insolubility in water. It describes the structure of fats, focusing on glycerides (mono-, di-, and triglycerides, with triglycerides being over 95% of food fats) and the arrangement of fatty acids on the glycerol backbone (simple vs. mixed triglycerides, chair vs. tuning-fork arrangements). Minor components like phospholipids (e.g., lecithin and its emulsifying properties, HLB values), sterols (cholesterol in animals, phytosterols/stanols in plants), tocopherols (antioxidants, vitamin E), other fat-soluble vitamins, and pigments are also discussed. The chapter details fatty acid structure (hydrocarbon chain with methyl and carboxyl groups, saturated vs. unsaturated, mono- vs. polyunsaturated), isomerism (cis vs. trans configurations and their impact on melting point and shape, geometric vs. positional isomers), and nomenclature systems (common/trivial, systematic/Geneva, omega system for classifying families like omega-3 and omega-6). Properties of fats and oils are examined, including crystal formation and polymorphism (alpha, beta prime, intermediate, beta crystals, and factors favoring small vs. large crystals), melting points (as a range, factors affecting it like chain length, number of double bonds, isomeric configuration), and plastic fats (moldable mixtures of liquid oil and solid crystals, importance of plastic range for creaming). The composition of common dietary fats and oils (animal fats like lard and tallow, tropical oils like cocoa butter, coconut, palm, palm kernel oils) is presented, along with production and processing methods including conventional breeding and genetic modification for stability, deodorization, and rendering. Modifications of fats such as hydrogenation (to convert oils to semi-solids and increase stability, formation of trans fats), interesterification (to increase heterogeneity and improve functional properties of fats like lard), acetylation (to form acetin fats used as lubricants and coatings), and winterization (to control cloudiness in salad oils) are explained. The chapter then covers the deterioration of fats through odor absorption and rancidity (hydrolytic rancidity involving water and lipases, and oxidative rancidity/autoxidation involving free radical formation in unsaturated fatty acids, catalyzed by heat, light, metals, or lipoxygenases, and its prevention using antioxidants like BHA, BHT, TBHQ, propyl gallate, and tocopherols, or sequestering agents like EDTA and citric acid). The shortening power of various fats and oils (lard, butter, margarine, hydrogenated fats, oils) is discussed, differentiating between tenderization and flakiness and the factors affecting them. The role of fats in frying is examined, including the concept of smoke point, flash point, fire point, changes during frying (fat oxidation and hydrolysis), and factors affecting oil uptake. Finally, the chapter addresses low-fat and no-fat foods and the various types of fat replacements: carbohydrate-derived (cellulose, dextrins, fiber, gums, inulin, maltodextrins, Nu-Trim, Oatrim, polydextrose, polyols, starches, Z-Trim), fat-derived (emulsifiers, sucrose fatty acid esters, Salatrim, Olestra/Olean, EPG, Sorbestrin), and protein-derived (microparticulated protein like Simplesse, modified whey protein concentrate like Dairy-Lo, other protein blends), concluding with the nutritive value and safety of fats and oils.

Chapter 13: Food Emulsions and Foams

This chapter explores food emulsions (like salad dressings and mayonnaise) and foams (like beaten egg white), which are colloidal systems crucial for the texture and volume of many food products. It defines an emulsion as a colloidal system of one liquid dispersed in another immiscible liquid (oil-in-water or water-in-oil), requiring an emulsifier to prevent coalescence. The chapter explains surface tension (and interfacial tension between two liquids) and how surface-active molecules (surfactants), which are amphiphilic, reduce this tension by orienting at the interface, facilitating mixing. Emulsion formation is described as a process requiring energy to break up one phase into droplets and the adsorption of an emulsifier at the new surfaces to create a stable film; the characteristics of good emulsifiers (adsorbing at the interface, reducing interfacial tension, forming a stable viscoelastic film) are highlighted, noting that proteins are generally the best natural emulsifiers (e.g., egg yolk, casein) while lecithin acts more as a surfactant. Synthetic emulsifiers (surfactants) like mono- and diglycerides, SPANS, and TWEENS are discussed along with the Hydrophilic/Lipophilic Balance (HLB) scale used to select appropriate ones for o/w or w/o emulsions. Examples of emulsions like French dressing (temporary) and mayonnaise (permanent, high oil content), and milk (natural emulsion, creaming effect) are provided. Factors affecting emulsion stability are examined, including emulsifier type and concentration, droplet size, pH, ionic strength, viscosity (role of stabilizers like gums), and handling conditions like temperature (heating, cooling, freezing) and shaking. The chapter then transitions to foams, comparing them to emulsions (gas bubbles in liquid, thinner continuous phase, greater density difference leading to drainage) and outlining foam formation (energy input, foaming agent reducing surface tension and forming interfacial film) and factors reducing foam stability (liquid drainage, film rupture, gas diffusion, evaporation). Good foaming agents (like proteins, especially egg white, also gelatin and milk proteins) and the effect of added ingredients (sugar, acid, gums, solid particles like fat in whipped cream or flour in angel food cake) on foam stability are discussed, as well as anti-foaming agents and foam suppressants (like fats, phospholipids, salts). The chapter briefly mentions other colloidal systems like gels.

Part V - Sugars and Sweeteners

Chapter 14: Sugars, Sweeteners, and Confections

This chapter examines sugars (simple carbohydrates) and their role in food systems, covering sources like sugar cane and sugar beet, and the diverse functions of sugar including providing sweetness, tenderness, and browning (Maillard reaction and caramelization), as well as acting as separating agents, affecting starch gelatinization, enabling pectin gel formation, stabilizing egg white foams, raising protein coagulation temperatures, adding bulk, aerating batters, reducing gluten structure, serving as a fermentation substrate, and retaining moisture. It details various types of sugars (sucrose, fructose, glucose, galactose, lactose, maltose) and specific forms used in food preparation (brown sugar, confectioners' sugar, invert sugar, raw sugar, turbinado sugar) as well as sugar syrups (corn syrup, high-fructose corn syrup/HFCS, honey, maple syrup, molasses). The properties of sucrose are explored, including its solubility, formation of different solution types (unsaturated, saturated, supersaturated), elevation of boiling point, formation of invert sugar (through acid or enzyme hydrolysis, and its role in controlling crystallization), and hygroscopicity. The chapter then discusses sugar substitutes, categorized into artificial/high-intensity sweeteners (non-caloric, non-nutritive like acesulfame K, advantame, aspartame, neotame, saccharin, sucralose, and the historically banned cyclamate) and sugar alcohols/polyols (caloric, nutritive like erythritol, HSH, isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol), as well as novel sweeteners like stevia, fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), tagatose, and trehalose. The final section focuses on confections (candy-making), distinguishing between major candy types: crystalline (e.g., fondant, fudge, rock candy, characterized by ordered crystal structures) and amorphous/noncrystalline (e.g., caramel, taffy, brittles, marshmallows, gumdrops, lacking crystal patterns and often having high sucrose concentration and interfering agents). Factors influencing the degree of crystallization and candy type are detailed, such as temperature (affecting sugar concentration and boiling point), sugar type (sucrose vs. invert sugar), sugar concentration (unsaturated, saturated, supersaturated solutions), cooling method and agitation (critical for crystalline candies to form small crystals), the role of chemical and mechanical interfering agents (e.g., corn syrup, cream of tartar, fat, milk proteins, egg whites) in controlling crystal size and texture, factors affecting candy hardness (moisture content), and the ripening process in crystalline candies. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the nutritive value and safety of sugars and sweeteners.

Part VI - Baked Products

Chapter 15: Baked Products

Batters and Dough This chapter builds on previous knowledge of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to discuss baked products, focusing on ingredients like flour, eggs, milk, fats, and sweeteners. It distinguishes between batters (pourable or droppable flour-liquid mixtures) and doughs (thicker, kneadable mixtures) based on their liquid-to-flour ratios, and introduces quick breads (chemically leavened) versus yeast breads (biologically leavened). The chapter explains the crucial role of gluten (formed from gliadin and glutenin proteins in certain flours upon hydration and manipulation) in providing structure, elasticity, and volume to many baked goods, and how its development is influenced by flour type (hard vs. soft wheat, whole wheat vs. refined, non-gluten flours), mixing, and other ingredients like sugar and fat. The functions of various key ingredients are detailed: flour (structure from gluten and starch gelatinization, fermentable sugar), liquids (hydration for gluten and starch, solvent, steam for leavening), leavening agents (air from mixing/creaming/beating, steam from liquids, and carbon dioxide from chemical sources like baking soda/powder or biological sources like yeast), eggs (binding, emulsification, leavening, structure, color, flavor), fat (tenderizing, shortening gluten, flakiness, leavening via creaming, moisture retention, flavor), salt (controls yeast, strengthens gluten, flavor), and sugar (flavor, tenderizing by competing for water, browning, yeast food, moisture retention). Specific ingredient considerations are provided for yeast breads (hard flour, specific roles of liquid, salt, sugar, optional ingredients), quick breads (all-purpose flour, chemical leavens), pastries (pastry flour, role of fat in flakiness vs. tenderness), and cakes (soft cake flour, role of eggs, fat, sugar in volume and texture). The chapter also covers mixing methods for various batters and doughs (biscuits, cakes, muffins, pastries, pour batters, yeast dough including kneading, fermenting, punching down, resting, shaping, proofing), the baking process itself (protein coagulation, starch gelatinization, gas expansion, browning, aroma release, oven spring), altitude-adjusted baking, storage of baked products, their nutritive value, considerations for reduced-fat/no-fat versions, and safety issues (microbial hazards like rope and mold, nonmicrobial deterioration like rancidity and staling).

Part VII - Aspects of Food Processing

Chapter 16: Food Preservation

This chapter focuses on food preservation techniques aimed at slowing or stopping bacterial spoilage to maintain taste, texture, and nutritive value. It distinguishes between food processing (which includes preservation and packaging) and food preservation itself (controlling spoilage agents). Heat preservation is discussed extensively, covering methods of heat transfer (conduction, convection, radiation), and differentiating between mild heat treatments (like pasteurization for milk/eggs/juices to kill pathogens and inactivate enzymes, and blanching for vegetables/fruits before freezing to inactivate enzymes) and severe heat treatments (like canning/bottling for commercial sterility and extended shelf life). The chapter explains the logarithmic death rate of microorganisms when heated, the concept of D-value (decimal reduction time), and thermal death time curves used to select optimal heat treatments that ensure safety while minimizing quality degradation. Refrigeration and freezing preservation methods are detailed, including rapid freezing techniques (air blast, plate, cryogenic using liquid nitrogen), problems associated with freezing (ice crystal damage, recrystallization, freezer burn, oxidation, colloidal changes), and moisture control. Dehydration preservation methods (sun drying, mechanical drying, drum drying, freeze-drying, puff drying, vacuuming, smoking, spray drying) and challenges like enzymatic changes and nonenzymatic browning are covered, as is concentration to reduce bulk (using open kettles, flash evaporators, thin-film evaporators, vacuum evaporators, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis) and associated product changes. The chapter also discusses added preservatives (acid, sugar, salt, smoke, vinegar, chemicals, fermentation), radiation preservation (microwave heating, irradiation including e-beam, ohmic heating, induction heating, and high-pressure processing/HPP), and concludes with the nutritive value and safety of preserved foods.

Chapter 17: Food Additives

This chapter defines food additives broadly as any substance added to food, and legally as substances whose intended use results in them becoming a component or affecting food characteristics, excluding prior-sanctioned and GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) substances like salt and sugar. It explains that additives are used to control decomposition, nutritional loss, and loss of functional or aesthetic properties, but not to disguise poor quality, and their use is regulated by the FDA (and USDA for meat/poultry). The chapter outlines the functions of food additives, including preservation (against microbial/enzymatic deterioration), maintenance/improvement of nutritional value (enrichment, fortification), and acting as sensory (flavor, color) or processing agents (consistency, emulsification, stabilization, thickening). The process for approving new additives is described, involving evidence of harmlessness and efficacy, the Delaney Clause (prohibiting carcinogens), and the Nutrition Labeling Education Act (NLEA) requirements for listing additives. A comprehensive list of major additives used in processing is provided with explanations of their functions: anticaking/free-flow agents (e.g., silicates), antimicrobials (e.g., salt, organic acids, nitrites, sulfites), antioxidants (e.g., ascorbic acid, tocopherols, BHA, BHT, TBHQ, propyl gallate, EDTA), bleaching/maturing agents (e.g., benzoyl peroxide, chlorine dioxide), bulking agents (e.g., sorbitol, polydextrose), coloring agents (natural/uncertified like annatto and beta-carotene, and synthetic/certifiable FD&C colors), curing agents (e.g., sodium nitrite/nitrate), dough conditioners/improvers (e.g., ammonium chloride, potassium bromate), edible films (e.g., sausage casings, waxes), emulsifiers (e.g., lecithin, mono/diglycerides, polysorbates), enzymes (e.g., bromelain, papain, amylases, invertase, pectinases, rennin, glucose oxidase), fat replacers (carbohydrate-, fat-, or protein-based), firming agents (e.g., calcium chloride), flavoring agents (natural and synthetic, including flavor enhancers like MSG), fumigants, humectants (e.g., glycerol, mannitol, sorbitol), irradiation, leavening agents (e.g., baking soda, yeast nutrients), lubricants (e.g., mineral hydrocarbons), nutrient supplements (vitamins, minerals for enrichment/fortification), pH control substances (acidulents like citric acid, alkalis like baking soda), preservatives (antimicrobials, antioxidants), pre- and probiotics, propellants (e.g., CO2, nitrogen), sequestrants/chelating agents (e.g., EDTA, citric acid), solvents, stabilizers/thickeners (e.g., alginates, carrageenan, cellulose derivatives, gums, pectin, starches), surface-active agents (wetting agents, emulsifiers), and sweeteners (sucrose, fructose, corn syrup, HFCS, honey, as well as alternative sweeteners like acesulfame K, aspartame, saccharin, sucralose, sugar alcohols, stevia). The chapter also touches upon functional foods, phytochemicals, and nutraceuticals in the context of nutrient supplementation and their regulatory status, and the formulation of new products with added vitamins/minerals, considering stability and interactions.

Chapter 18: Food Packaging

This chapter discusses food packaging as an integral part of food processing, essential for preserving food against spoilage and contamination, extending shelf life, and providing containment, protection, information, and convenience. It classifies packaging containers as primary (direct food contact, e.g., bottle, can), secondary (holds primary containers, e.g., corrugated box), and tertiary (bundles secondary containers for distribution, e.g., overwraps). The chapter details the functions of packaging, including preventing spoilage of sensory qualities, contamination (biological, chemical, physical), controlling gas and moisture exchange, facilitating ease of use, ensuring adequate storage, indicating tampering, communicating product information, and marketing. Common packaging materials are examined: metal (steel "tin cans", aluminum cans/trays/foil, closures), glass (bottles, jars, coatings), paper (Kraft paper, paperboard, fiberboard/cardboard, laminates, susceptors for microwave browning), and plastics (polyethylene/PE, PE with EVA, PET, PEN, polypropylene/PP, polystyrene/PS/Styrofoam, PVC, PVDC/Saran, EVOH), along with their properties and applications. Other materials like cotton, burlap, edible films (e.g., sausage casings, waxes, polysaccharide/protein coatings with antimicrobials), foil, laminates (e.g., retort pouches), and resins are also mentioned. The chapter then delves into methods of controlling packaging atmosphere, collectively known as Reduced Oxygen Packaging (ROP), which includes cook-chill, Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP) using oxygen scavengers or gas emitters, Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) involving gas flushing (N2, CO2), sous vide (vacuum packaging of partially cooked foods), and vacuum packaging (removing air for a skintight package), detailing their benefits (extended shelf life, retarded oxidation, reduced spoilage) and safety concerns (e.g., growth of anaerobes like C. botulinum, requiring strict temperature control and HACCP plans). Active packaging technologies (moisture/oxygen barriers, antimicrobial films, off-odor scavengers, microwave doneness indicators/susceptors, steam release films, time-temperature indicators/TTI) are discussed, along with aseptic packaging (independent sterilization of food and multilayer packaging material like Tetra Brik, for shelf-stable liquids), flexible packaging (pouches, tubes, zippered bags), and freezer packaging protection against freezer burn and cavity ice. Manufacturing concerns such as selection of materials, migration of substances from packaging (e.g., plasticizers like DEHA, printing inks, concerns about dioxins and recycled materials), packaging lines, the use of Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) tags for tracking, packaging as a communication/marketing tool, environmental considerations (source reduction, reuse, recycling), safety of irradiated packaging, and the future of packaging (e.g., holistic design, digital printing, interactive/intelligent packaging, flexible packaging growth, role of digital media) are also covered.

Part VIII - Food Safety

Chapter 19: Food Safety

This chapter emphasizes the critical importance of food safety, identifying it as a responsibility shared by government agencies (FDA, USDA, CDC), food processors, and consumers to prevent foodborne illness. It defines foodborne illness as disease carried by food due to biological, chemical, or physical hazards, and identifies potentially hazardous foods (PHFs) as those supporting rapid microbial growth. Biological hazards are detailed, focusing on bacteria as the primary concern, which cause illness through infection (e.g., Salmonella, Listeria, Shigella), intoxication (preformed toxins from Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus cereus), or toxin-mediated infection (e.g., C. perfringens, E. coli O157:H7); factors required for bacterial growth (protein, moisture, pH, oxygen, temperature danger zone/TDZ) and the bacterial growth curve (lag, log, stationary, decline phases) are explained. The chapter also discusses viruses (e.g., Hepatitis A, Norovirus), fungi (molds and yeasts, including mycotoxins), and parasites (e.g., Trichinella spiralis, Anisakis) as causes of foodborne illness, distinguishing between contamination (harmful substances, often unseen) and spoilage (visible damage to eating quality). Chemical hazards (accidental contamination, excessive additives, toxic metals like galvanized iron, naturally occurring toxins in foods like puffer fish) and physical hazards (foreign objects like glass, wood, metal, plastic, insects, bones) are covered, along with methods for their control and detection (screening, magnets, metal detectors, X-ray units). Food protection systems are a major focus, including the roles of the FDA and USDA, and particularly the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system, detailing its seven principles (hazard assessment, identifying CCPs, setting control procedures/standards, monitoring CCPs, corrective actions, record-keeping, verification) with examples for chicken salad and BBQ ribs. Surveillance for foodborne disease outbreaks by the CDC (including FoodNet) and identification of at-risk populations (elderly, pregnant women, young children, immunocompromised) are discussed. The chapter also touches on other causes of spoilage (enzymatic activity, moisture, pests), the importance of proper sanitizing in the workplace (temperature control, warewashing, FIFO, dissolvable labels), and labeling as a means of assuring food safety, including dating (sell-by, best if used by, expiration, pack, pull dates) and allergen-free labeling (FALCPA requirements for the eight major allergens). An addendum covers the bioterrorism threat to food safety, outlining government agency roles (FDA, USDA, CDC, FEMA, OSHA), the Bioterrorism Act of 2002, and emergency preparedness guidelines for foodservice operations and consumers, including safe food and water storage.

Part IX - Government Regulation of Food Supply

Chapter 20: Government Regulation of the Food Supply and Labeling

This chapter outlines the framework of government regulation ensuring a safe and properly labeled food supply in the United States, emphasizing the roles of federal agencies like the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), alongside state and local authorities. It details the FDA's broad responsibilities under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act of 1938, which covers the safety of most foods, drugs, cosmetics, and medical devices, and its various amendments including the Pesticide Chemical Amendment (1954), Food Additives Amendment (1958) with the Delaney Clause (1966), Color Additives Amendment (1960), Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (1966), and the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990. The chapter explains GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) substances, FDA standards for interstate food transport (Standard of Identity, Standard of Minimum Quality, Standard of Fill of Container), and definitions for adulterated and misbranded food. The USDA's role in inspecting meat, poultry, and egg products, as well as its voluntary grading services and administration of food and nutrition assistance programs (WIC, SNAP, school meals, disaster assistance, farmers' market programs) is also covered. The chapter mentions other regulatory agencies like the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). General labeling requirements (product name, net weight, ingredients, manufacturer details, product dates), the use of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags, and detailed aspects of nutrition labeling under NLEA (Nutrition Facts panel, serving sizes, Daily Values including RDIs and DRVs) are discussed. The chapter also addresses health claims allowed on food labels, labeling for food allergens (FALCPA requirements), and labeling considerations for foodservice establishments. An "extra" section on food security and emergency planning concludes the main chapter content. Appendices provide further details on Biotechnology/GMOs, Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals, Phytochemicals, Medical Foods, USDA's ChooseMyPlate.gov, Food Label Health Claims, Research Chefs Association Certifications, Human Nutrigenomics, and Product Development/Innovation.