Leviathan

Summary

Part I: Of Man

• Chapter 1: Of Sense: All human thought originates from external bodies pressing on sense organs, creating sensations (sight, sound, etc.).
• Chapter 2: Of Imagination: Imagination is "decaying sense," the lingering effect of sensation after the external object is gone. Memory is imagination related to past sensation. Dreams are imagination during sleep.
• Chapter 3: Of the Consequence or Train of Imaginations: Thoughts follow each other in sequences, either unguided (random association) or regulated (seeking causes or effects).
• Chapter 4: Of Speech: Speech allows humans to register thoughts, recall them, and communicate them. Defines names, propositions, and the importance of clear definitions. Discusses abuses of speech.
• Chapter 5: Of Reason and Science: Reason is reckoning (adding and subtracting) the consequences of general names agreed upon. Science is the knowledge of consequences derived from definitions. Errors in reasoning lead to absurdity.
• Chapter 6: Of the Interior Beginnings of Voluntary Motions commonly called the Passions: Introduces "endeavour" – tiny motions within the body. Appetite (motion towards something) and Aversion (motion away) are the basis of all passions (love, hate, joy, fear, etc.). Good and evil are relative to individual appetites and aversions.
• Chapter 7: Of the Ends or Resolutions of Discourse: Judgment is the final opinion in a search for truth. Doubt is hesitation. Deliberation is the alternation of appetites and aversions regarding an action. The Will is the final appetite or aversion in deliberation, leading immediately to action or omission.
• Chapter 8: Of the Virtues Commonly Called Intellectual, and their Contrary Defects: Discusses natural wit (quickness of imagination, judgment) and acquired wit (reason, science). Madness is seen as resulting from excessive passions or disordered thought.
• Chapter 9: Of the Several Subjects of Knowledge: Divides knowledge into History (knowledge of facts) and Science/Philosophy (knowledge of consequences, or cause and effect).
• Chapter 10: Of Power, Worth, Dignity, Honour, and Worthiness: Defines Power as one's present means to obtain some future apparent good. Worth is the measure of power valued by others. Honour is the manifestation of value placed on someone.
• Chapter 11: Of the Difference of Manners: Manners are qualities affecting social life. Argues humans have a "perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death," leading to competition.
• Chapter 12: Of Religion: Religion originates from anxiety about the future and the search for causes, leading to belief in invisible powers (gods). While the seed of religion is natural, specific religions are culturally shaped.
• Chapter 13: Of the Natural Condition of Mankind as concerning their Felicity and Misery: Describes the "State of Nature" where humans exist without a common power. Humans are roughly equal in body and mind, leading to competition, diffidence (distrust), and glory (seeking reputation). This results in a "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes), where life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." In this state, there is no industry, culture, justice, or injustice.
• Chapter 14: Of the First and Second Natural Laws, and of Contracts: Introduces the Right of Nature (liberty to use one's power for self-preservation) and Laws of Nature (precepts found by reason, forbidding self-destruction). First Law: Seek peace and follow it. Second Law: Be willing to lay down the right to all things (if others do too) for the sake of peace, retaining only as much liberty against others as one would allow them against oneself. Defines contracts and covenants (contracts involving future performance).
• Chapter 15: Of Other Laws of Nature: Lists further laws of nature derived from the first two: justice (performing covenants), gratitude, mutual accommodation (complaisance), pardon, avoiding cruelty in revenge, avoiding contempt (contumely), avoiding pride, avoiding arrogance, equity, common use of indivisible things, settling disputes by lot or primogeniture, safe conduct for mediators, submission to arbitration. These are dictates of reason promoting peace and self-preservation.
• Chapter 16: Of Persons, Authors, and Things Personated: Defines a Person as one whose words or actions are considered their own (Natural Person) or as representing another (Artificial Person). An Author owns the words/actions; an Actor represents the Author. This lays groundwork for the sovereign as an artificial person representing the people.

Part II: Commonwealth

• Chapter 17: Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Commonwealth: Men leave the state of nature out of fear of death and desire for a more commodious life, realizing the laws of nature are insufficient without enforcement. The Commonwealth is created when people mutually covenant to transfer their rights (except self-preservation) to a sovereign power (one man or an assembly) authorized to act for their peace and common defense. This sovereign is the Leviathan.
• Chapter 18: Of the Rights of Sovereigns by Institution: Describes the absolute and indivisible rights of the sovereign established by covenant: subjects cannot change the form of government or withdraw allegiance; the sovereign cannot forfeit power; dissenters must consent to the majority's choice; the sovereign's actions cannot be justly accused or punished by subjects; the sovereign judges doctrines, property, disputes; makes war/peace; chooses counselors/ministers; rewards/punishes; sets honors.
• Chapter 19: Of the Several Kinds of Commonwealth by Institution, and of Succession to the Sovereign Power: Identifies three types of commonwealth: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy. Argues Monarchy is the most effective because the monarch's private interest is most closely aligned with the public interest. Discusses the importance of clear rules for succession.
• Chapter 20: Of Dominion Paternal and Despotical: Sovereignty can also be acquired by force (conquest). Acquired sovereignty ("despotical dominion") has the same rights as sovereignty by institution. Paternal dominion (over children) also derives from consent (explicit or implicit). Fear is the motivator in both cases.
• Chapter 21: Of the Liberty of Subjects: Liberty is the absence of external impediments. In a commonwealth, subject liberty consists in things the sovereign permits, actions where the law is silent, and the retained right of self-preservation (e.g., refusing dangerous orders, not self-incriminating without assurance of pardon). Obligation to the sovereign lasts only as long as the sovereign provides protection.
• Chapter 22: Of Systems Subject, Political, and Private: Discusses various types of groups ("systems") within the commonwealth, such as political bodies (provinces, corporations) and private bodies (families, businesses), all subordinate to the sovereign.
• Chapter 23: Of the Public Ministers of Sovereign Power: Describes the role of ministers appointed by the sovereign to administer various functions of government (justice, treasury, military, instruction).
• Chapter 24: Of the Nutrition and Procreation of a Commonwealth: Discusses the economy: resources, distribution of property (determined by sovereign), trade, and money as the "blood" of the commonwealth.
• Chapter 25: Of Counsel: Distinguishes counsel (advice given for the benefit of the recipient) from command (an order given for the benefit of the commander). The sovereign should seek good counsel but retains sole decision-making power.
• Chapter 26: Of Civil Laws: Civil Law is the command of the sovereign, specifying rules for subjects. The sovereign is the legislator but is not subject to the civil laws. Laws must be known (promulgated) and require interpretation (ultimately by the sovereign). Natural law and civil law contain each other.
• Chapter 27: Of Crimes, Excuses, and Extenuations: A crime is a sin consisting in breaking a civil law. Defines causes of crime (ignorance, flawed reasoning, passions) and distinguishes factors that excuse a crime (lack of law, fear of death) from those that lessen blame (provocation, passion).
• Chapter 28: Of Punishments and Rewards: Punishment is an evil inflicted by public authority on a lawbreaker to dispose men towards obedience. It must follow a public trial and be determined by law. Rewards are used by the sovereign to encourage service.
• Chapter 29: Of those things that Weaken, or tend to the Dissolution of a Commonwealth: Lists internal "diseases" that can destroy a commonwealth: insufficient sovereign power, seditious doctrines (private judgment superior to law, sovereign subject to laws, claims of divine inspiration challenging sovereign), lack of funds, powerful subjects, large private armies, etc.
• Chapter 30: Of the Office of the Sovereign Representative: The sovereign's duty is the "safety of the people" (salus populi), encompassing not just bare preservation but also a contented life. This requires maintaining absolute rights, instructing citizens, administering equal justice, providing for the needy, and making good laws (necessary, clear, few).
• Chapter 31: Of the Kingdom of God by Nature: Explores God's sovereignty based on His irresistible power, known through natural reason. The laws of nature are God's laws. Discusses natural worship and attributes of God discoverable by reason. Obedience to the civil sovereign is compatible with obedience to God's natural laws.

Part III: Of a Christian Commonwealth

reconciling Christian doctrine and scripture with the principles of sovereignty

• Chapter 32: Of the Principles of Christian Politics: Addresses the potential conflict between obeying God and obeying man, particularly when God's commands are known via Scripture. Emphasizes the need for authorized interpretation.
• Chapter 33: Of the Number, Antiquity, Scope, Authority, and Interpreters of the Books of Holy Scripture: Examines the biblical canon and argues that the authority to determine which books are canonical and how they are interpreted rests with the sovereign in a Christian commonwealth.
• Chapter 34: Of the Signification of Spirit, Angel, and Inspiration in the Books of Holy Scripture: Analyzes biblical language, often arguing for metaphorical or physical interpretations over purely spiritual ones (e.g., spirit as disposition or subtle body).
• Chapter 35: Of the Signification in Scripture of Kingdom of God, Holy, Sacred, and Sacrament: Interprets key religious terms within a political framework. The Kingdom of God can refer to God's natural rule, His specific rule over Israel, or the future heavenly kingdom.
• Chapter 36: Of the Word of God, and of Prophets: Discusses different meanings of "Word of God" (reason, revelation, scripture). True prophets are hard to discern; ultimately, the sovereign judges claims to prophecy within the commonwealth.
• Chapter 37: Of Miracles and their Use: Miracles are works that cause wonder and are attributed to God, used to gain credibility for His messengers. Belief in miracles depends on context; the sovereign judges public claims.
• Chapter 38: Of the Signification in Scripture of Eternal Life, Hell, Salvation, the World to Come, and Redemption: Offers interpretations minimizing conflict with sovereign power, e.g., arguing eternal life occurs after resurrection on a purified Earth, and hell often signifies the grave or earthly suffering.
• Chapter 39: Of the Signification in Scripture of the word Church: Argues the Church is an assembly of Christian men. There is no universal political church on earth; in each nation, the church is subject to the civil sovereign.
• Chapter 40: Of the Rights of the Kingdom of God, in Abraham, Moses, the High Priests, and the Kings of Judah: Traces God's literal political kingdom over the Jews, established by covenant, showing how sovereign power was exercised through figures like Moses and the Kings.
• Chapter 41: Of the Office of Our Blessed Saviour: Christ's role was primarily as a teacher and advisor, preparing for his future kingdom, not as a temporal ruler during his life. He commanded obedience to existing civil powers.
• Chapter 42: Of Power Ecclesiastical: The longest chapter, systematically arguing against any independent political or coercive power held by the Pope, bishops, or presbyteries. All ecclesiastical authority (teaching, ordination, excommunication) affecting civil life derives from the Christian sovereign, who is the supreme pastor.
• Chapter 43: Of what is Necessary for a Man's Reception into the Kingdom of Heaven: Argues the only necessary articles of faith are that Jesus is the Christ, combined with obedience to the laws (God's natural laws and the sovereign's civil laws). In cases of apparent conflict, one must generally obey the sovereign, as direct, certain commands from God are rare and not binding on others unless validated by the sovereign.

Part IV: Of the Kingdom of Darkness

• Chapter 44: Of Spiritual Darkness from Misinterpretation of Scripture: Identifies errors arising from misreading scripture that serve to undermine civil authority and promote ecclesiastical power, such as claiming the Church is the Kingdom of God now, belief in eternal torment for the masses, papal supremacy, and demonology.
• Chapter 45: Of Demonology and other Relics of the Religion of the Gentiles: Critiques beliefs in demons, exorcism, ghosts, etc., as superstitious remnants of paganism incorporated into Christianity, often used to manipulate the fearful.
• Chapter 46: Of Darkness from Vain Philosophy and Fabulous Traditions: Attacks Aristotelian and Scholastic philosophy ("vain philosophy") for introducing obscure and meaningless concepts (like incorporeal substances, separated essences) that confuse understanding and support false religious doctrines (like transubstantiation).
• Chapter 47: Of the Benefit that proceedeth from such Darkness, and to whom it Accrueth: Concludes that these errors and obscurities primarily benefit the Papacy and ambitious clergy seeking worldly power and wealth by deceiving the people and usurping civil authority. Reaffirms the principles of the book as conducive to peace and enlightenment.

Quotes

Chapter 17: Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Commonwealth

The Definition Of A Common-wealth And in him consisteth the Essence of the Common-wealth; which (to define it,) is "One Person, of whose Acts a great Multitude, by mutuall Covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the Author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their Peace and Common Defence."

Soveraigne, And Subject, What And he that carryeth this Person, as called SOVERAIGNE, and said to have Soveraigne Power; and every one besides, his SUBJECT.

The attaining to this Soveraigne Power, is by two wayes. One, by Naturall force; as when a man maketh his children, to submit themselves, and their children to his government, as being able to destroy them if they refuse, or by Warre subdueth his enemies to his will, giving them their lives on that condition. The other, is when men agree amongst themselves, to submit to some Man, or Assembly of men, voluntarily, on confidence to be protected by him against all others. This later, may be called a Politicall Common-wealth, or Common-wealth by Institution; and the former, a Common-wealth by Acquisition. And first, I shall speak of a Common-wealth by Institution.

17.1

The final cause, end, or design of men (who naturally love liberty, and dominion over others) in the introduction of that restraint upon themselves, in which we see them live in Commonwealths, is the foresight of their own preservation, and of a more contented life thereby; that is to say, of getting themselves out from that miserable condition of war which is necessarily consequent, as hath been shown, to the natural passions of men when there is no visible power to keep them in awe, and tie them by fear of punishment to the performance of their covenants, and observation of those laws of nature set down in the fourteenth and fifteenth chapters.